Forest History of Ethiopia Past and Present
By
Dr. Badege Bishaw

1.1 Forest Resources of Ethiopia

High forests, either coniferous or broadleafed, were the climax vegetation of 35 - 40 percent of Ethiopia before human settlement took place. With the inclusion of savanna woodlands some 66 percent of the country was covered with forest or woodlands at that time. Over the last 5000 years, there has been progressive deforestation which has accelerated tremendously during the last century as the country's population has grown (Wood, 1990).

Different sources indicate that about 35 - 40 percent of the country's land area was covered with high forests at the turn of the 19 century (Britenbach, 1961). However, rapid population growth (3 percent per year), extensive forest clearing for cultivation and over-grazing, movement of political centers, and exploitation of forests for fuelwood and construction materials without replanting has reduced the forest area of the country to 16 percent in the 1950's and 3.1 percent in 1982 (UNEP, 1983).Further estimates of the distribution of forest and woodland areas made on the basis of information from LANDSAT imagery (1979) revealed that 2.8 percent of the land surface is under forest and woodland (Kuru, 1990; MOA, 1991; Table 1).

 The current rate of deforestation is estimated to be 200,000 hectares per year. As a result large areas of the country are now exposed to heavy soil erosion. It is estimated that fertile top soil is lost at a rate of 1 billion cubic meters per year (FAO, 1981, Constable, 1985), resulting in a massive environmental degradation and serious threat to sustainable agriculture and forestry. 

Most of the present forest is located in the southwest and central parts of Ethiopia (Fig. 1). It is also estimated that open savanna type of woodlands dominated by Acacia species cover more than 20 million hectares. These lands are used for grazing and crop production, while the trees are used for local fuelwood and charcoal production.

Fig 1. Forest cover map of Ethiopia at the end of the 1970's Source: Ministry of Agriculture, 1991

In addition to the natural forest cover, there are about 162,000 hectares of plantation forest and about 36,000 hectares of per urban fuelwood plantation. These are managed by the state, and Eucalyptus are the main plantation species (MOA, 1991).

 As might be expected in a country with such wide variations in climate, topography and soils, Ethiopia is one of the few countries in Africa where virtually all major types of natural vegetation are represented, ranging from thorny bushes to tropical forests and to mountain grasslands. The number of native flora species has been estimated at over 10,000, while more than 50 different botanical plant communities exist (Money, 1961).

Little of the natural vegetation of the highlands remains today except for south and southwestern parts of the country. The influence of man and his domestic animals has profoundly altered both the vegetation and the landscape. Ecological degradation, including deforestation and erosion, is widespread, particularly in the northern and central highlands. Though not as severely degraded, the southern parts of the highlands are being increasingly affected. 

1.2.Present Forestry Development

Ethiopia's forest resource conservation, development and utilization today is not the product of a long evolving process in which different land-use planning measures have been devised and used to meet changing needs and various ecological conditions of the country. The absence of sound and comprehensive land-use polices encompassing the identification, selection and appropriation of suitable areas for forestry development based on production and environmental protection is the outstanding forestry problem in Ethiopia (MOA, 1990).

 Despite this major problem, however, massive soil conservation and afforestation programs have been going on in Ethiopia since the early 1970's. These programs are undertaken by various agencies of the government through the assistance of many international and bilateral organizations. The three most important governmental and international organizations involved in soil conservation and afforestation programs are described below (Gamachu, 1990; Hurni, 1990). 

The first organization is Community Forests and Soil Conservation Development Department (CFSCDD) of the Ministry of Agriculture is the main government agency involved in the planning and execution of soil conservation measures and afforestation programs. The Department is involved in three main activities: farm forestry, community forestry and soil conservation. 

In farm forestry programs, peasants are encouraged to establish small private plantations around their homes - usually various species of eucalyptus. The community forest programs provide technical and financial support in the establishment of nurseries and the planting of seedlings. The soil conservation unit is involved with terracing and other soil protection schemes. The Department works directly with the Peasant Associations (PAs) who provide labor. The State Forest Conservation and Development Department (SFCDD) of the Ministry of Agriculture is the second agency and is involved in the establishment, management and protection of National Forests and in the rehabilitation of degraded forests as a source of industrial wood. It is also involved in the establishment and management of fuelwood in rural areas and around urban areas. The SFCDD has professionals and technical staff and also uses paid laborers for field work.

The remaining natural forest areas of the SFCDD are located primarily in the south and southwest of the country (Fig. 1). High forests in these areas have been identified and efforts are being made to conserve, protect and manage these resources on a sustained yield basis. However, at present, accessible high forest areas are exposed to the various development project pressures, including coffee-and tea-cash cropping, human resettlement, grazing and logging operations (MOA, 1990).

Due to the immediate significance and the long-term impact of these problems, efforts have been made to identify the remaining high forest and designate them into 57 National Forest Priority Areas, covering 3.5 million hectares. However, the proper protection and management of these National Forest Priority Areas is questionable because of the lack of clear and efficient forest policy.

The third organization is World Food Program of the United Nations. It has been involved in and has continued to support soil conservation, afforestation and small scale irrigation projects in Ethiopia since the mid-1970's.Its assistance is mainly in the form of Food for Work programs in which peasants who come to work on the projects are provided with grain and vegetable oil.

Various documents of the CFSCDD indicate that by September 1986 close to 500,000 hectares of farmland and 175,000 hectares of hillside has been terraced and 181,000 hectares of land has been afforested by the community Forestry Program throughout the country. Although the achievements have been impressive, it has been reported by the CFSCDD that soil conservation and afforestation activities have declined over the years and the enthusiasm manifested in the early years of the programs seem to have failed in recent years.

The problems seem to be related to disincentives among peasants for soil conservation measures and afforestation programs. These activities, although part of a "development package" are not seen to ensure an immediate return to the peasants. The activities take some land out of production and place more pressure on existing farm and grazing land. This is particularly the case in northern Ethiopia where there is a shortage of agricultural land. Peasants are also required to provide their labor and time for activities which, from their point of view, do not generate immediate benefits.

Moreover, in the use of community forests, in particular, there is no clear legal basis for determining ownership. Farmers tend to assume that the forests belong to the State.The fact that even the small plantations around their dwellings are partially confiscated by the PAs is likely to produce further disincentives to plant or once planted to manage and protect the trees. Also, the massive national soil conservation and afforestation efforts between 1976 and 1985 (Gamachu, 1990; Hurni, 1990) are often seen as government-imposed activities, and since they are not accompanied by education, the advantages of these efforts are not associated with individual benefits

2. CROP PRODUCTION AND SOIL EROSION

Favorable climatic and ecological conditions, sufficient rainfall, moderate temperatures, and well developed soils - were the basis for the early development of agricultural systems in Ethiopia (Hurni, 1990). A range of rural economies have developed, varying from highland animal rearing, to mixed farming systems and pastoralism (Wood, 1990).

Many of these farming systems were quite sophisticated and well adjusted to environmental conditions so that they permitted permanent cultivation and settlement. However, agriculture gradually expanded from gently sloping land in the highlands onto the steeper slopes of the neighboring mountains on the one hand, and into the flat swampy plains of the plateau on the other. The clearing of forests for cultivated land and the attendant accelerated soil erosion gradually destroyed the soil resource, especially in the areas of the highlands that were settled first (Hurni, 1990).

In general, soil degradation in Ethiopia can be seen as a direct result of past agricultural practices on the highlands. The dissected terrain, the extensive areas with slopes above 16 percent, and the high intensity of rainfall lead to accelerated soil erosion once deforestation occurs. Also some of the farming practices within the highlands encourage erosion. These include cultivation of cereal crops such as teff (Ergrotis tef) and wheat (Triticum sativum) which require the preparation of a fine-tilth seedbed, the single cropping of fields, and the down slope final plowing to facilitate drainage. Furthermore, the socio-political influences, especially insecurity of land-and tree tenure have discouraged farmers from investing in soil conservation practice.

Thus, soil degradation is the most immediate environmental problem facing Ethiopia. The loss of soil, and the deterioration in fertility, moisture storage capacity and structure of the remaining soils, all reduce the country's agricultural productivity. Soil erosion is greatest on cultivated land where the average annual loss is 42 tons per hectare, compared to 5 tons per hectare from pastures. As a result, almost half of the loss of soil comes from land under cultivation even though they cover only 13 percent of the country. Not surprisingly the highest average rates of soil loss are from former cultivated lands currently unproductive due to degradation and with very little vegetative cover to protect them as shown in (Table 2, Hurni, 1990).

The present status and rate of soil erosion in Ethiopia calls for immediate action to retard and reverse this degradation process. However, the present rate of population growth (3 percent) in comparison with economic growth (1 percent), (IAR, 1991), will lead to intensive use of cultivatable and pasture land to produce more food and feed for the growing human and livestock population. Hence, it is clear that intensification of land use must be accompanied by technological innovations that will lead to more production and conserve the soil resource at the same time.

Fig. 2. Severity of soil degradation due to soil erosion in Ethiopia

3. LIVESTOCK AND PASTURE RESOURCES

Fig. 2 Shows a summary of the regional distribution of soil degradation. This confirms the severity of the problem in the north of the country and the Eastern Highlands, with the Wolo and Tigray Highland the most severely affected area. Thus, it is no coincidence that the regions with greatest damage due to soil degradation are also the ones most affected by famines (Hurni, 1990).

Ethiopia has the largest livestock population in Africa, totaling some 30.6 m tropical livestock units (TLU).  Cattle are the most important, numbering some 27 m head, followed by sheep (24m), goats (18m), equines (7m) and camels (1m). There are also 53 million poultry in the country. Because of its favorable climate, the majority of the livestock are found in the highlands, i.e., 80 percent of the cattle, 83 percent of the sheep, 73 percent of the goats and 76 percent of the equines and almost all poultry. The balance form an integral part of the lowland farming system (Table 3). Beside these, there are some 7 million honey-bee colonies, which in most cases are distributed in all areas of human settlement.  

Table 3. Composition of livestock in highlands and lowlands of Ethiopia
Livestock	Total head ,000s	Highlands		Lowlands
		Head, 000s	%	Head, 000s	%
Cattle	27000	21600	80	5400	20
Sheep	24000	19900	83	4100	17
Goats	18000	13100	73	4900	27
Equine	7000	5300	76	1700	24
Camels	1000	0	0	1000	100
Poultry	53000	47700	90	5300	10
Source: Modified after Hoekstra et. al, 1990

All rural systems in Ethiopia for various reasons have a livestock component. In the mixed-farming system, livestock are key elements, providing draught power and manure for crop production. In the pastoral system they are a production system themselves, providing milk, butter, meat and blood for consumption, and produce for sale. In both systems, they fulfill security functions, accumulating livestock as a "bank deposit" for use in difficult times.

Livestock feed in Ethiopia is derived mainly from grasses, forbs, shrubs and tree leaves. In addition, crop residues and processed byproducts contribute significantly to livestock feed in the highland areas. The main grazing resources are savannah grasslands (bushlands), temperate pasture, fallow land and crop residues. There are some 65.5m ha of grazing and browsing land in the country, with 66 percent of this in the lowlands where only 20 percent of the livestock are located (Hoekstra et. al., 1990)

The main problem facing livestock production is the supply of fodder. In general, the shortage is highest at the end of the dry season and at the beginning of the wet season, when cultivated land is occupied by crops and large areas of permanent pastures on the flat lands are waterlogged. An important factor contributing to a decline in fodder resources is the ever-increasing human population. This has resulted in an increase in cropland at the expense of traditional grazing areas such as bushlands, pasture and forests (Hoekstra et. al., 1990).

Because livestock is an integral part of the rural economy, it is important to consider the different options available to improve the livestock production system and to determine the implications in terms of fodder supply and herd management. One aspect which is clear if Ethiopia is to support more people on the highlands, is that better management of the resource base, with the appropriate innovations for fodder production and controlled grazing, are very important.